Good (or “goodness”) is a property that things may have, and it is often used as the basis for moral judgments. It can be defined in a variety of ways, and is central to metaethics as well as ethics. It can be subjective, as in a person judging that something is nice or rewarding, or objective, as in something being the best option for someone in a situation.
A fundamental question in metaethics is whether there is a way to determine what is good, or if goodness is simply a feeling. Emotivism and non-naturalists typically claim that it is impossible to determine what is good, while rationalists generally agree that one can use some form of reason to arrive at conclusions about moral issues.
When an action is judged to be good, it means that it is desirable, advantageous, beneficial, or valuable in some way. People often use the phrase ‘what’s good’ at the end of text messages, for example.
The underlying concept in many ethical theories is that the ultimate goal is to make the most of the world around us. Hedonistic utilitarians, for example, hold that the most important criterion is to achieve the most pleasure and satisfaction for as many people as possible. Other utilitarians, however, prefer a more morally neutral stance.
Some metaethicists argue that it is impossible to define what is good in non-emotivist terms, and therefore a determination of goodness is simply a matter of feeling. These are sometimes called non-naturalists or error theorists. Other metaethicists, however, reject this claim and instead defend a position known as moral realism. They argue that there is a real thing, the Good, which is something in the universe that all good things share, or participate in, or at least resemble. They say that the good is what gives a certain kind of meaning or value to an object, such as a human or a lion or a house.
The idea that the Good exists in some abstract, universal sense is sometimes linked to religious belief. For example, the Persian philosopher Zoroaster simplified the pantheon of ancient Iranian gods into a dual system of opposing forces, Ahura Mazda (Illuminating Wisdom) and Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit). He believed that by doing so he would help his followers to attain the Good.
The good is also the topic of many philosophical and practical debates. It is, for instance, the central premise of utilitarianism, which asserts that the most right actions are those that produce the most happiness and benefit for as many people as possible. A number of philosophers have criticised utilitarianism, including Rawls and Mill. Other philosophers have defended the theory, such as Kraut, who argues that the fact that something is good for a person is sufficient grounds for judging that it has a certain level of moral worth. It is also a key idea in virtue ethics, which stresses the importance of being a good person.